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The unexpected use of ground-up Egyptian mummies as a common pigment in European oil painting until the 1960s.

2026-02-18 16:00 UTC

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Provide a detailed explanation of the following topic: The unexpected use of ground-up Egyptian mummies as a common pigment in European oil painting until the 1960s.

Here is a detailed explanation of the strange and macabre history of "Mummy Brown," a pigment literally made from ground-up human remains.

1. The Substance: What was "Mummy Brown"?

Known technically as Caput Mortuum (Death’s Head) or simply Mummy Brown, this pigment was a rich, bituminous brown color. It was highly prized by artists for its unique properties. It sat somewhere between raw umber and burnt umber on the color spectrum but possessed a transparency and warmth that was difficult to replicate with mineral-based earth tones.

The key ingredient was white pitch and myrrh—resins used in the ancient Egyptian mummification process—mixed with the ground-up flesh and bone of the mummies themselves.

Why artists loved it: * Transparency: It was excellent for glazing (layering thin coats of paint) to create shadows and flesh tones. * Texture: It had a "buttery" consistency that was easy to work with in oil painting. * Versatility: It mixed well with other colors, specifically oil and varnish.

2. Origins: The "Mummy Trade" (16th–19th Century)

The use of mummies in Europe began not with art, but with medicine. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a translation error led Europeans to believe that bitumen (a black, tarry substance found in natural deposits) possessed healing powers. The Arabic word for bitumen was mumya.

Because Egyptian mummies were embalmed with bitumen and resins, Europeans began grinding them up and consuming the powder as a cure-all medicine for ailments ranging from headaches to stomach ulcers. This created a massive trade network importing mummies from Egypt to Europe.

As the Enlightenment era approached and medical science advanced, the use of "corpse medicine" faded. However, the supply chain remained intact. Colourmen (the historical term for pigment manufacturers) began purchasing the mummies to grind into paint instead of medicine.

3. The Golden Age of Mummy Brown (1700s–1800s)

The pigment reached the height of its popularity in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was a staple in the palettes of many Pre-Raphaelite painters and was widely used by French and British artists.

  • Eugène Delacroix, the leader of the French Romantic school (famous for Liberty Leading the People), is widely believed to have used Mummy Brown in his darker, more atmospheric works.
  • Martin Drolling’s L'interieur d'une cuisine (Interior of a Kitchen), hanging in the Louvre, is reputed to have been painted using extensive amounts of Mummy Brown made from the disinterred remains of French kings exhumed from the logic-defying chaos of the French Revolution, though standard Egyptian mummy was more common.

Because the pigment was so common, it is highly likely that thousands of paintings hanging in museums today—particularly portraits and landscapes with rich, deep shadows—contain the DNA of ancient Egyptians.

4. The Decline: Ethics and Chemistry

The decline of Mummy Brown happened for two primary reasons: the realization of what it actually was, and its poor archival quality.

The "Horror" Factor: Remarkably, many artists who used the paint did not literally understand that "Mummy Brown" was made from actual mummies. They assumed it was a trade name describing the color, similar to "emerald green" or "royal blue."

A famous anecdote involves the British writer Rudyard Kipling and his uncle, the Pre-Raphaelite artist Edward Burne-Jones. In the 1880s, Kipling casually mentioned that the paint was made from dead bodies. Burne-Jones, horrified, refused to believe it. He rushed to his studio, grabbed his tube of Mummy Brown, and insisted on giving it a "decent Christian burial." He and Kipling marched into the garden and buried the tube of paint in the earth.

As this knowledge spread, artists began to reject the pigment on ethical and moral grounds.

The Archival Issue: From a technical standpoint, Mummy Brown was unstable. While it looked beautiful when wet, it had a tendency to crack and fade over time. Furthermore, because it contained organic matter and bitumen, it often reacted poorly with other pigments, inhibiting the drying process or causing the paint to streak and buckle years later.

5. The End of the Line: 1964

Despite the ethical concerns, the pigment remained available well into the 20th century. However, the supply of available mummies eventually ran dry.

The definitive end of Mummy Brown is usually cited as 1964.

In that year, Time magazine interviewed Geoffrey Roberson-Park of the venerable London colourman firm C. Roberson & Co. When asked about the pigment, he famously replied:

"We might have a few odd limbs lying around somewhere, but not enough to make any more paint. We sold our last mummy some years ago for £3. Perhaps we shouldn't have. We certainly can't get any more."

With Egypt tightening laws regarding the export of antiquities and a cultural shift toward respecting archaeological finds, the raw material was no longer obtainable.

Summary

Today, you can still buy tubes of paint labeled "Mummy Brown," but they contain a blend of kaolin, quartz, goethite, and hematite minerals designed to mimic the hue of the original. The era of painting with the dead is officially over, leaving behind a bizarre chapter in art history where the preservation of ancient life was destroyed to preserve the images of modern life.

Mummy Brown: The Macabre Pigment of European Art

What Was Mummy Brown?

Mummy Brown (also called Caput Mortuum or Egyptian Brown) was a rich, warm brown pigment created by grinding up actual Egyptian mummies—both human and feline remains—and mixing the powder with white pitch and myrrh. The resulting pigment had a distinctive transparent quality with reddish-brown undertones that artists found particularly useful for glazing, shadows, and flesh tones.

Historical Origins

The Supply Chain

The use of mummified remains as pigment began in the 16th-17th centuries, coinciding with a broader European fascination with Egyptian antiquities. The practice emerged from several converging factors:

  • Plentiful supply: European traders and colonizers had access to seemingly endless supplies of mummified remains from Egyptian tombs
  • "Mumia" medicine: Europeans had already been consuming powdered mummy as medicine since the 12th century, believing it had curative properties
  • Economic practicality: Mummies were so abundant they were sometimes used as fuel for locomotives in Egypt, making them an inexpensive material

Chemical Composition

The pigment's unique properties came from the mummification process itself: - Bitumen and resins used in embalming provided the dark color - Natron (a salt mixture) used for preservation - Desiccated organic matter from the remains - The centuries-old decomposition process created stable, earthy pigments

Artistic Applications

Why Artists Valued It

Mummy Brown became popular for specific technical reasons:

  1. Transparency: Excellent for glazing techniques
  2. Warm undertones: Ideal for shadows and flesh tones
  3. Good drying properties: Mixed well with oil medium
  4. Unique color: Difficult to replicate with other pigments

Notable Users

While documentation is incomplete, the pigment appears in works from: - Pre-Raphaelite painters (confirmed users in the 19th century) - Edward Burne-Jones: Reportedly gave his tube a burial when he learned its contents - Lawrence Alma-Tadema: Known to have used it - Martin Drolling: Used it in his paintings

Many artists used it unknowingly, as suppliers didn't always clearly label the pigment's origins.

The Decline and End

Growing Awareness and Revulsion

The practice began declining in the 19th century for several reasons:

Ethical concerns: As Egyptology became a serious academic discipline, the destruction of human remains for art materials became increasingly controversial.

The Edward Burne-Jones incident (1880s): The famous Pre-Raphaelite painter was horrified to learn his "brown" paint contained human remains and reportedly held a burial for his paint tube in his garden. This story, though possibly apocryphal, reflects growing unease.

Supply problems: By the early 20th century, authentic Egyptian mummies were becoming scarce and valuable as archaeological artifacts rather than raw materials.

Final Production

Despite ethical concerns, some manufacturers continued producing Mummy Brown into the 20th century:

  • C. Roberson & Co., a London art supplier, claimed to have used their last mummy in the 1960s
  • The firm's manager stated in 1964 that they had discontinued the color due to lack of supply rather than ethical concerns
  • Some sources suggest production may have continued sporadically even later in isolated cases

Modern Understanding and Alternatives

Contemporary Replacements

Modern paints labeled "Mummy Brown" contain: - Synthetic iron oxides - Kassel earth (a brown earth pigment) - Mixtures of other mineral pigments - These replicate the color without human remains

Archaeological and Ethical Perspectives

Today, this practice is viewed as: - Vandalism of irreplaceable archaeological materials - Desecration of human remains - A reflection of colonial attitudes toward Egyptian culture - An example of how different eras had vastly different ethical frameworks

Broader Context

Victorian Attitudes Toward Egyptian Antiquities

The use of mummies as pigment was part of a larger pattern of exploitation: - "Mummy unwrapping parties" as entertainment - Mummy paper: Paper allegedly made from mummy wrappings - Medicinal mumia: Consuming powdered mummy as medicine - Fertilizer: Ground mummies used for agricultural purposes

Lessons for Modern Conservation

This history informs current practices: - International treaties protecting cultural heritage - NAGPRA and similar repatriation laws - Ethical guidelines for museum collections - Debates about displaying human remains

Conclusion

The story of Mummy Brown pigment reveals much about changing attitudes toward human remains, cultural artifacts, and colonial exploitation. What was once considered a practical use of abundant material is now recognized as destruction of irreplaceable archaeological evidence and disrespectful treatment of the dead. The practice serves as a reminder that ethical standards evolve, and what one era considers acceptable may appall future generations.

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